Organizational Culture and Leadership	3
	Contents	7
	Acknowledgments	11
	Preface	15
	Foreword	17
	About the Authors	25
	Part One: Defining the Structure of Culture	27
	1. How to Define Culture in General	29
	The Problem of Defining Culture Clearly	29
	Accumulated Shared Learning	32
	Basic Taken-for-Granted Assumptions—The Cultural DNA	33
	Solving Problems of External Adaptation and Internal Integration	33
	Solutions That Have Worked Well Enough to Be Considered Valid	34
	Perception, Thought, Feeling, and Behavior	35
	What You Imply When You Use the Word Culture	36
	Taught to New Members: The Process of Socialization or Acculturation	37
	Can Culture Be Inferred from Behavior Alone?	38
	Do Occupations Have Cultures?	39
	Where Does Leadership Come In?	40
	Summary and Conclusions	40
	Suggestions for Readers	42
	2. The Structure of Culture	43
	Three Levels of Analysis	43
	Artifacts—Visible and Feelable Phenomena	43
	Espoused Beliefs and Values	45
	Taken-for-Granted Underlying Basic Assumptions	47
	The Metaphor of the Lily Pond	51
	The Individual from a Cultural Perspective	53
	The Group or Micro System from a Cultural Perspective	54
	Summary and Conclusions	55
	Suggestions for Readers	56
	3. A Young and Growing U.S. Engineering Organization	57
	Case 1: Digital Equipment Corporation in Maynard, Massachusetts	57
	Artifacts: Encountering the Company	58
	Espoused Beliefs, Values, and Behavioral Norms	61
	Basic Assumptions: The Basic DEC Paradigm	64
	Additional Basic Assumptions	66
	Summary and Conclusions	68
	Suggestions for Readers	69
	4. A Mature Swiss-German Chemical Organization	71
	Case 2: Ciba-Geigy Company in Basel, Switzerland	71
	Artifacts—Encountering Ciba-Geigy	71
	Espoused Beliefs and Values	76
	Assumptions—The Ciba-Geigy Company’s Cultural Paradigm	77
	Can Organizational Cultures Be Stronger than National Cultures?	81
	Summary and Conclusions	82
	Questions for Readers	85
	5. A Developmental Government Organization in Singapore	87
	Case 3: Singapore’s Economic Development Board	87
	The EDB Nested Cultural Paradigms	89
	1. The Contextual Paradigm: Assumptions about the Role of Government in Economic Development	89
	2. The Cultural Paradigm of the EDB as an Organization	92
	Summary and Conclusions: The Multiple Implications of the Three Cases	99
	Questions for Readers	101
	Part Two: What Leaders Need to Know about Macro Cultures	103
	6. Dimensions of the Macro-Cultural Context	107
	Travel and Literature	107
	Survey Research	108
	Hofstede’s IBM Study	108
	The Globe Study	110
	Ethnographic, Observational, and Interview-Based Research	112
	Language and Context	112
	The Nature of Reality and Truth	113
	Basic Time Orientation	115
	The Meaning of Space: Distance and Relative Placement	118
	Human Essence and Basic Motivation	122
	Assumptions about Appropriate Human Activity	124
	Assumptions about the Nature of Human Relationships	126
	Summary and Conclusions	128
	Questions for Readers	130
	7. A Focused Way of Working with Macro Cultures	131
	Cultural Intelligence	133
	How to Foster Cross-Cultural Learning	135
	The Concept of a Temporary Cultural Island	135
	Focused Dialogue in a Cultural-Island Setting	137
	Using Dialogue for Multicultural Exploration	139
	Legitimizing Personalization in Cross-Cultural Conversation	141
	The Paradox of Macro Culture Understanding	143
	Echelons as Macro Cultures	144
	Summary and Conclusions	147
	Suggestion for the Change Leader: Do Some Experiments with Dialogue	148
	How to Set Up a Dialogue	148
	Suggestion for the Recruit	149
	Suggestion for the Scholar or Researcher	149
	Suggestion for the Consultant or Helper	149
	Part Three: Culture and Leadership through Stages of Growth	151
	8. How Culture Begins and the Role of the Founder of Organizations	153
	A Model of How Culture Forms in New Groups	153
	Stage 1, Forming: Finding One’s Identity and Role	153
	Stage 2, Storming: Resolving Who Will Have Authority and Influence	154
	Stage 3, Norming: Resolving at Which Level of Relationship We Want to Operate	155
	Stage 4, Performing: The Problem of Task Accomplishment	156
	The Role of the Founder in the Creation of Cultures	156
	Example 1: Ken Olsen and DEC Revisited	158
	Example 2: Sam Steinberg and Steinberg’s of Canada	162
	Example 3: Fred Smithfield, a “Serial Entrepreneur”	166
	Example 4: Steve Jobs and Apple	168
	Example 5: IBM—Thomas Watson Sr. and His Son	170
	Example 6: Hewlett and Packard	170
	Summary and Conclusions	172
	Suggestions for Readers	173
	Implications for Founders and Leaders	173
	9. How External Adaptation and Internal Integration Become Culture	175
	The Socio-Technical Issues of Organizational Growth and Evolution	176
	External Adaptation	176
	Internal Integration	177
	Language and Categories of Thought	177
	Mission and Reason to Be	178
	Issues around Goals Derived from the Mission	182
	Issues around the Means: Structure, Systems, and Processes	184
	Issues around Measurement	186
	Correction and Repair Strategies	190
	Issues in Defining Group Boundaries and Criteria for Inclusion	194
	Issues in Distributing Power, Authority, and Status	196
	Issues in Developing Norms of How to Relate to Each Other around Trust and Openness	199
	Issues in Allocating Rewards and Punishment	201
	Issues in Managing the Unmanageable and Explaining the Unexplainable	203
	Summary and Conclusions	204
	Suggestion for the Culture Analyst	205
	Suggestion for the Manager and Leader	205
	10. How Leaders Embed and Transmit Culture	207
	Primary Embedding Mechanisms	209
	What Leaders Pay Attention to, Measure, and Control on a Regular Basis	210
	Leader Reactions to Critical Incidents and Organizational Crises	216
	How Leaders Allocate Resources	218
	Deliberate Role Modeling, Teaching, and Coaching	219
	How Leaders Allocate Rewards and Status	220
	How Leaders Select, Promote, and Excommunicate	221
	Secondary Reinforcement and Stabilizing Mechanisms	222
	Organization Design and Structure	223
	Organization Systems and Procedures	224
	Rites and Rituals of the Organization	226
	Design of Physical Space, Façades, and Buildings	227
	Stories about Important Events and People	228
	Formal Statements of Organizational Philosophy, Creeds, and Charters	229
	Lessons for Leaders and Researchers	229
	Summary and Conclusions	230
	Questions for Researchers, Students, and Employees	232
	11. The Culture Dynamics of Organizational Growth, Maturity, and Decline	233
	General Effects of Success, Growth, and Age	234
	Face-to-Face Communication and Personal Acquaintance Is Lost	234
	“Functional Familiarity” Is Lost	234
	Coordination Methods Change	235
	Measurement Mechanisms Change	235
	Pressures for Standardization Increase	235
	Standardized Methods Become More Abstract and Potentially Irrelevant	235
	The Nature of Accountability Changes	235
	Strategic Focus Becomes More Difficult	236
	The Role of Central Functions and Services Becomes More Controversial	236
	Growth of Responsibility for Others Increases	236
	Decision Making Becomes Biased by Responsibility for Others	236
	Family Feeling Is Lost	237
	A Common Culture Is Harder to Maintain	237
	Differentiation and the Growth of Subcultures	237
	Functional or Occupational Differentiation	238
	Geographic Decentralization	241
	Differentiation by Product, Market, or Technology	242
	Divisionalization	243
	Differentiation by Hierarchical Level	245
	The Need for Alignment between Three Generic Subcultures: Operators, Designers, and Executives	247
	The Subculture of the Operator Function	247
	The Subculture of the Engineering and Design Function	250
	The Executive Subculture	252
	The Unique Role of the Executive Function: Subculture Management	255
	Summary and Conclusions	255
	Suggestions for the Reader	257
	12. Natural and Guided Cultural Evolution	259
	Founding and Early Growth	260
	Incremental Change through General and Specific Evolution	260
	Self-Guided Evolution through Insight	262
	Managed Evolution through Hybrids	262
	Transition to Midlife: Problems of Succession	263
	Taking Advantage of Subculture Diversity	266
	Changes in Technology	266
	Culture Change through Infusion of Outsiders	269
	Organizational Maturity and Potential Decline	271
	Culture Change through Scandal and Explosion of Myths	273
	Culture Change through Mergers and Acquisitions	274
	Culture Change through Destruction and Rebirth	275
	Summary and Conclusions	276
	Questions for Readers	277
	Part Four: Assessing Culture and Leading Planned Change	279
	13. Deciphering Culture	281
	Why Decipher Culture?	281
	Deciphering from the Outside	282
	Deciphering in a Researcher Role Is an Intervention	283
	Clinical Inquiry: Deciphering in a Helper or Consultant Role	286
	How Valid Are Clinically Gathered Data?	288
	Ethical Issues in Deciphering Culture	289
	Risks of an Analysis for Research Purposes	289
	Risks of an Internal Analysis	290
	Professional Obligations of the Culture Analyst	292
	Summary and Conclusions	293
	Questions for the Reader	295
	14. The Diagnostic Quantitative Approach to Assessment and Planned Change	297
	Why Use Typologies, and Why Not?	298
	Issues in the Use of Surveys to “Measure” Culture	300
	When to Use Surveys	302
	Typologies that Focus on Assumptions about Authority and Intimacy	304
	1. Coercive Organizations	304
	2. Utilitarian Organizations	304
	3. Normative Organizations	305
	Typologies of Corporate Character and Culture	307
	Examples of Survey-Based Profiles of Cultures	311
	Automated Culture Analysis with Software-as-a-Service	314
	Summary and Conclusions	319
	Suggestions for the Reader	321
	15. The Dialogic Qualitative Culture Assessment Process	323
	Case 4: MA-COM—Revising a Change Agenda as a Result of Cultural Insight	324
	Lessons Learned	327
	Case 5: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Reassessing Their Mission	328
	Step 1: Obtain Top Leadership Commitment	328
	Step 2: Select Groups for Self-Assessment	329
	Step 3: Select an Appropriate Setting for the Group Self-Assessment	329
	Step 4: Explain the Purpose of the Group Meeting (15 Minutes)	329
	Step 5: Understand How to Think about Culture (15 Minutes)	330
	Step 6: Elicit Descriptions of the Artifacts (60 Minutes)	330
	Step 7: Identify Espoused Values (15–30 Minutes)	330
	Step 8: Identify Shared Underlying Assumptions (15–30 Minutes)	331
	Step 9: Identify Cultural Aids and Hindrances (30–60 Minutes)	331
	Step 10: Make Decisions on Next Steps (30 Minutes)	332
	Lessons Learned	333
	Case 6: Apple Assessing Its Culture as Part of a Long-Range Planning Process	333
	Lessons Learned	336
	Case 7: SAAB COMBITECH—Building Collaboration in Research Units	337
	Lessons Learned	338
	Case 8: Using A Priori Criteria for Culture Evaluation	339
	What of DEC, Ciba-Geigy, and Singapore? Did Their Cultures Evolve and Change?	340
	Summary and Conclusions	341
	Suggestion for the Reader	343
	16. A Model of Change Management and the Change Leader	345
	The Change Leader Needs Help in Defining the Change Problem or Goal	346
	General Change Theory	347
	Why Change? Where Is the Pain?	348
	The Stages and Steps of Change Management	349
	Stage 1: Creating Motivation and Readiness for Change	349
	Principle 1: Survival Anxiety or Guilt Must Be Greater than Learning Anxiety	353
	Principle 2: Learning Anxiety Must Be Reduced Rather than Increasing Survival Anxiety	354
	Stage 2: The Actual Change and Learning Process	356
	Imitation and Identification versus Scanning and Trial-and-Error Learning	356
	Stage 3: Refreezing, Internalizing, and Learning Agility	363
	Cautions in Regard to “Culture” Change	363
	Summary and Conclusions	365
	Suggestions for Readers	367
	17. The Change Leader as Learner	369
	What Might a Learning Culture Look Like?	370
	Why These Dimensions?	375
	Learning-Oriented Leadership	376
	Learning Leadership in Culture Creation	377
	Learning Leadership in Organizational Midlife	377
	Leadership in Mature and Declining Organizations	378
	A Final Thought: Discover the Culture within My Own Personality	380
	References	381
	Index	393
	EULA	411